When does temperature limit bee flight? Identifying the missing pieces of the puzzle

<p>Bees are the most important insect pollinators, and nearly all bee-mediated pollination depends on flight. In this review, we identify five key gaps that limit our ability to predict how abiotic factors shape bee flight performance and ecology. First, while clade strongly influences endothermy and flight temperature limits, we still know little about how phylogeny, body size, and ecological traits shape thermal biology across the full diversity of bee species - most data come from temperate, northern hemisphere  Apinae. Second, because the mechanisms of thermal balance during flight have only been studied in a handful of species, and these vary, we clearly lack a predictive understanding of when bees will be physiologically stressed by temperature during flight. Third, although some studies suggest desiccation may limit flight more than overheating, the links between thermal balance and water regulation remain poorly understood. Fourth, we know very little about bees’ capacity to respond to thermal variation through acclimation, developmental plasticity, or evolutionary adaptation. Finally, we need advances in biophysical modeling to better simulate heat and water exchange in bees, including the role of cuticular structures and internal heat transfer among body regions. Filling these gaps is essential for building predictive, mechanistic models of how climate change will affect bee physiology and the pollination services bees provide.</p>